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Clear filtersA value type variable holds its data directly and is copied on assignment, while a reference type variable holds a reference to an object, so assignment copies the reference and both variables see the same object.
Boxing converts a value type to object by allocating it on the heap, and unboxing converts it back; both add allocations and casts, so avoid them in hot code paths.
A shallow copy creates a new container but reuses the same nested objects, while a deep copy recursively copies everything so the new object is fully independent.
Streams process data piece by piece as it arrives instead of loading it all into memory, which lets you handle large files and network data efficiently; they come in Readable, Writable, Duplex and Transform types.
The .NET garbage collector automatically frees managed objects that are no longer reachable, organising them into generations 0, 1 and 2 so short-lived objects are collected cheaply, and IDisposable is used to release unmanaged resources such as files and connections promptly.
A generator is a function that uses yield to produce values one at a time and remembers its state between calls, so it can process large or infinite sequences without holding everything in memory.
CPython frees objects mainly through reference counting, deleting an object as soon as nothing refers to it, and uses a cyclic garbage collector to clean up groups of objects that reference each other.
The JVM divides memory into a per-thread stack, a shared heap (split into young and old generations) and Metaspace; the garbage collector frees heap objects that are no longer reachable, collecting short-lived young objects frequently and old objects less often.
Take heap snapshots in Chrome DevTools before and after the suspect action, compare what grew, and fix the retaining reference, which is usually a forgotten listener, timer, global variable or unbounded cache.